ESP SPEAKING STRATEGIES AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY IN HIGHER EDUCATION CLASSROOM
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anxiety, English for specific purposes, foreign language, speaking, strategies
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Abstract
The study examines the undergraduate students’ perceived use of foreign language speaking strategies, their levels of foreign language anxiety, and the potential relationships between them. Two instruments were used in the study—Inventory of Speaking Strategies in a Foreign Language, based on the instrument Strategy Inventory in Foreign Language Learning, and Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale. The results showed that students’ overall perceived use of speaking strategies in English as a foreign language for specific purposes was frequent. The findings also revealed that the students’ foreign language anxiety was at a medium level; individual performance anxieties remained at the same medium levels. A few differences were found between the low-anxious and high-anxious groups on the speaking strategy use: the former uses circumlocutions and synonyms when stuck with a word in English more frequently while the latter is paying attention more often when someone is speaking in English. The results also suggest that the medium-anxious group uses gestures when unable to think of a word during a conversation in English less frequently than the low-anxious group.
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Бојовић, М. Д. ESP SPEAKING STRATEGIES AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE ANXIETY IN HIGHER EDUCATION CLASSROOM. ANNUAL REVIEW OF THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, 45(5), 181–203. https://doi.org/10.19090/gff.2020.5.181-203
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References
Aida, Y. (1994). Examination of Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope’s construct of foreign language anxiety: The case of students of Japanese. The Modern Language Journal, 78(2), 155-167. Downloaded 10 May 2010 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/329005. Accessed 10 May 2010.
Arnaiz, P.–Guillen, F. (2012). Foreign language anxiety in a Spanish university setting: Interpersonal differences. Revista de Psicodidactica, 17/1, 5-26.
Chang, H-C.–Fang, W-C.–Yang, B-H.–Luo, B-R.–Chew, S-W. & Chen, N-S. (2017). Examining the relationships between foreign language anxiety and attention during conversation tasks. In: Popescu, E.-Kinshuk, M.-Khribi, K.-Huang, R.-Jemni, M.-Chen, N-S. & Sampson, D. J. (Eds.) (2017). Innovations in smart learning. Singapore: Springer Science+Business Media. 1-11.
Cheng, Y.–Horwitz, E. K. & Schallert, D. L. (1999). Language anxiety: Differentiating writing and speaking components. Language Learning, 49(3), 417-446. doi: 10.1111/0023-8333.00095
Chiang, Y. (2006). Connecting two anxiety constructs: An interdisciplinary study of foreign language anxiety and interpretation anxiety. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The University of Texas, Austin (USA). Downloaded 12 September 2019 from http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/2695/chiangd66244.pdf.
Cohen, A. D. (2005). Strategies for learning and performing L2 speech acts. Intercultural Pragmatics, 2(3), 275-301.
Cohen, A. D. (2010). Focus on the language learner: Style, strategies, and motivation. In: Schmidt, N. (Ed.) (2010). An introduction to applied linguistics. London: Hodder Education, 161-178.
Cohen, A. D. (2014). Strategies in learning and using a second language. New York: Routledge.
Crookall, D.–Oxford, R. L. (1991). Dealing with anxiety: Some practical activities for language learners and teacher trainees. In: Horwitz, E.-Horwitz, I. & Cope, I. (Eds.) (1991). Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 141-150.
Ehrman, M.–Leaver, B. & Oxford, R. L. (2003). A brief overview of individual differences in second language learning. System, 31(3), 313–330.
Gkonou, C. (2014). Sociolinguistic parameters of L2 speaking anxiety. In: Pawlak, M.-Bielak, J. and Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A. (Eds.) (2014). Classroom-oriented research: Achievements and challenges. Springer International Publishing Switzerland. 15-32.
Goh, C. C. M., & Burns, A. (2012). Teaching speaking: A holistic approach. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Gordon, E. G.–Sarason, S. B. (1955). The relationship between “test anxiety” and “other anxieties”. Journal of Personality, 23(3), 317-323. doi: 10.1111/1467-6494.ep8930749.
Gregersen, T. (2003). To err is human: A reminder to teachers of language-anxious students. Foreign Language Annals, 36(l), 25-32.
Gregersen, T. (2005). Nonverbal cues: Clues to the directions of foreign language anxiety. Foreign Language Annals, 38(3), 388-400. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2005.tb02225.x
Gregersen, T.–Horwitz, E. K. (2002). Language learning and perfectionism: anxious and non-anxious language learners’ reactions to their own oral performance. The Modern Language Journal, 86(4), 562-570.
Green, J. M.–Oxford, R. (1995). A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and gender. TESOL Quarterly, 29(2), 261-297. doi:10.2307/3587625
Horwitz, E. K. (1986). Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of a Foreign Language Anxiety Scale. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 559-562.
Horwitz, E. K.–Horwitz, M. B. & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70, 125-132.
Horwitz, E. K. (2010). Research timeline: Foreign and second language anxiety. Language Teaching, 43(2), 154-167. doi:10.1017/S026144480999036X
Huang, X-H.–van Naerssen, M. (1987). Learning strategies for oral communication. Applied Linguistics 8(3), 287-307. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/8.3.287
Kawai, Y. (2008). Speaking and good language learners. In: Griffiths, C. (ed.) (2008). Lessons from good language learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 218-230.
Khalil, A. (2005). Assessment of language learning strategies used by Palestinian EFL learners. Foreign Language Annals, 38(1), 108-119. doi:10.1093/applin/8.3.287
Khamkhien, A. (2012). Proficiency, motivation, and classroom anxiety and their effect on language learning strategies used by Thai EFL learners. RJAS, 2(2), 85-98. doi:10.14456/rjas.2012.9
Lee, K. R.–Oxford, R. (2008). Understanding EFL learners’ strategy use and strategy awareness. The Asian EFL Journal, 10(1), 7-32. Downloaded 20 September 2019 from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/March_2008_EBook.pdf
Liu, M. (2018). Interactive effects of English-speaking anxiety and strategy use on oral English test performance of high- and low-proficient Chinese university EFL learners. Cogent Education, 5(1), 1562410. Downloaded 18 June 2020 from https://www.cogentoa.com/article/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1562410
Liu, H.–Chang, C. (2013). A study on language learning strategy use and its relation to academic self-concept: The case of EFL students in Taiwan. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 4(2), 260-268. doi:10.4304/jltr.4.2.260-268
Lucas, R. I.–Miraflores, E. & Go, D. (2011). English language learning anxiety among foreign language learners in the Philippines. Philippine ESL Journal, 7, 94-119.
Maros-Llinas, M.–Garan, M. J. (2009). Effects of language anxiety on three proficiency-level courses of Spanish as a foreign language. Foreign Language Annals, 42(1), 94-111.
MacIntyre, P. D. (1999). Language anxiety: A review of the research for language teachers. In: Young, D. J. (Ed.) (1999). Affect in foreign language and second language teaching: A practical guide to creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere. Boston: Mc Graw-Hill. 24-45.
MacIntyre, P. D.–Gardner, R. C. (1991). Investigating language class anxiety using the focused essay technique. The Modern Language Journal, 75(3), 296-304.
MacIntyre, P. D.–Gardner, R. C. (1994). The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in the second language. Language Learning, 44, 283-305.
MacIntyre, P. D.–Noels, K. A. (1996). Using social-psychological variables to predict the use of language learning strategies. Foreign Language Annals, 29(3), 373- 386.
Murray, B. (2010). Students’ language learning strategy use and achievement in the Korean as a foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 43(4), 624-634. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2010.01105.x
Oh, J. (1992). Learning strategies used by university EFL students in Korea. Language Teaching [Korea], 1, 3-53.
Ohata, K. (2005). Potential sources of anxiety for Japanese learners of English: Preliminary case interviews with five Japanese college students in the U.S. TESL-EJ, 9(3), 1-21.
Olivares-Cuhat, G. (2010). Relative importance of learning variables on L2 performance. Linguistik online, 43(3/10), 99-116. Downloaded 11 September 2019 from http://www.linguistik-online.de/43_10/olivarescuhat.pdf
O’Malley, J. M.–Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’Malley, J. M.–Chamot, A. U.–Stewner-Manzanares, G.–Russo, R. P. & Kupper, L. (1985). Learning strategy applications with students of English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly, 19(3), 557-584. doi:10.2307/3586278
Oxford, R. L. (1989). Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. Downloaded 30 July 2019 from http://www.finchpark.com/arts/sille.doc
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House.
Oxford, R. L. (2017). Teaching and researching language learning strategies: Self-regulation in context. New York and London: Routledge.
Palacios, L. M. (1998). Foreign language anxiety and classroom environment: A study of Spanish university students. PhD dissertation, Austin, The University of Texas.
Pawlak, M. (2011). Anxiety as a factor influencing the use of language learning strategies. In: Pawlak, M. (Ed.) (2011). Extending the boundaries of research of second language learning and teaching. Berlin-Heideleberg: Springer Verlag. 149-165.
Pawlak, M. (2018a). Grammar learning strategy inventory (GLSI): Another look. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 8(2), 351-379. doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.2.8
Pawlak, M. (2018b). Investigating the use of speaking strategies in the performance of two communicative tasks: The importance of communicative goal. Studies in the Second Language Learning and Teaching 8(2), 269-291. See doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.2.5
Pietrzykowska, A. (2014). The relationship between learning strategies and speaking performance. In: Pawlak, M.-Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A. & Bielak, J. (Eds.) (2014). Classroom-oriented research: Achievements and challenges. Heidelberg: Springer. 55-68.
Pichette, F. (2009). Second language anxiety and distance language learning. Foreign Language Annals, 42(1), 77-93.
Rodriguez, M.–Abreu, O. 2003. The stability of general foreign language classroom anxiety across English and French. The Modern Language Journal, 87(3), 365-374.
Rubin, J. (1975). What the “good language learner” can teach us? TESOL Quarterly, 9(1), 41-51.
Samimy, K. K. (1994). Teaching Japanese: Considerations of learners’ affective variables. Theory into Practice, 33(1), 29-33. Downloaded 3 October 2019 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1476413?origin=JSTOR-pdf.
Shabani, M. B. (2015). On the relationship between foreign language anxiety and language learning strategies among Iranian EFL learners. International Journal of Educational Investigations, 2(2), 9-23.
Sioson, I. C. (2011). Language learning strategies, beliefs, and anxiety in academic speaking task. Philippine ESL Journal, 7, 3-27.
Sparks, R. L.–Ganschow, L. (2007). Is the foreign language classroom anxiety scale measuring anxiety or language skills? Foreign Language Annals, 40(2), 260-287. doi: 10.1111/j.1944-9720.2007.tb03201.x
Stern, H. H. (1975). What can we learn from the good language learner? Canadian Modern Language Review, 31(4), 304-18.
Tallon, M. (2011). Heritage speakers of Spanish and foreign language anxiety: A pilot study. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education, 15(1), 70-87. Downloaded 10 February 2013 from http://studentorgs.utexas.edu/flesa/TPFLE_New/Index.htm.
Toth, Z. (2008). A foreign language anxiety scale for Hungarian learners of English. WoPaLP, 2, 55-78. Downloaded 23 December 2011 from http://langped.elte.hu/WoPaLParticles/W2TothZs.pdf.
Tudor, I. (1996). Learner-centredness as Language Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Watson, D.–Friend, R. (1969). Measurement in social-evaluative anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33(4), 448-457.
Wu, Kun-huei. (2010). The relationship between language learners’ anxiety and learning strategy in the CLT classroom. International Education Studies. 3(1), 174-191.
Yamashiro, A. D.–McLaughlin, J. (2001). Relationships among attitudes, motivation, anxiety, and English language proficiency in Japanese college students. In: Robinson, P.-Sawyer, M. & Ross, S. (eds.) (2001). Second language acquisition research in Japan: JALT Applied Materials Series, Vol. 4. Tokyo, Japan: Japan Association of Language Teachers Press. 19-33.
Yan, J. X.–Horwitz, E. K. (2008). Learner’s perceptions of how anxiety interacts with personal and instructional factors to influence their achievement in English: A qualitative analysis of EFL learners in China. Language Learning, 58(1), 151-181. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00437.x
Yang, M. (2010). Language learning strategies of English as a foreign language university students in Korea. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The College of Graduate and Professional Studies Department of Curriculum, Instruction, and Media Technology, Indiana State University. Downloaded 11 September 2019 from http://scholars.indstate.edu/handle/10484/968?mode=full
Yang, N. D. (1999). The relationship between EFL learners' beliefs and learning strategy use. System, 27(4), 515-535. doi:10.1016/S0346-251X(99)00048-2
Young, D. J. (1990). An investigation of students’ perspectives on anxiety and speaking. Foreign Language Annals, 23(6), 539-553. doi: 10.1111/j.1944-9720.1990.tb00424.x
Young, D. J. (1991). Creating a low anxiety classroom environment: What does language anxiety research suggest? The Modern Language Journal, 75, 426-439.
Young, D. J. (1999). Affect in foreign language and second language learning: A practical guide to creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Zhang, X.–Liu, Y. (2005). Language learning strategies and language achievement: Across-cultural study. CELEA Journal, 28(3), 82-89. Downloaded 28 September 2019 from http://www.celea.org.cn/teic/61/61-82.pdf
Arnaiz, P.–Guillen, F. (2012). Foreign language anxiety in a Spanish university setting: Interpersonal differences. Revista de Psicodidactica, 17/1, 5-26.
Chang, H-C.–Fang, W-C.–Yang, B-H.–Luo, B-R.–Chew, S-W. & Chen, N-S. (2017). Examining the relationships between foreign language anxiety and attention during conversation tasks. In: Popescu, E.-Kinshuk, M.-Khribi, K.-Huang, R.-Jemni, M.-Chen, N-S. & Sampson, D. J. (Eds.) (2017). Innovations in smart learning. Singapore: Springer Science+Business Media. 1-11.
Cheng, Y.–Horwitz, E. K. & Schallert, D. L. (1999). Language anxiety: Differentiating writing and speaking components. Language Learning, 49(3), 417-446. doi: 10.1111/0023-8333.00095
Chiang, Y. (2006). Connecting two anxiety constructs: An interdisciplinary study of foreign language anxiety and interpretation anxiety. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The University of Texas, Austin (USA). Downloaded 12 September 2019 from http://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/2695/chiangd66244.pdf.
Cohen, A. D. (2005). Strategies for learning and performing L2 speech acts. Intercultural Pragmatics, 2(3), 275-301.
Cohen, A. D. (2010). Focus on the language learner: Style, strategies, and motivation. In: Schmidt, N. (Ed.) (2010). An introduction to applied linguistics. London: Hodder Education, 161-178.
Cohen, A. D. (2014). Strategies in learning and using a second language. New York: Routledge.
Crookall, D.–Oxford, R. L. (1991). Dealing with anxiety: Some practical activities for language learners and teacher trainees. In: Horwitz, E.-Horwitz, I. & Cope, I. (Eds.) (1991). Language anxiety: From theory and research to classroom implications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 141-150.
Ehrman, M.–Leaver, B. & Oxford, R. L. (2003). A brief overview of individual differences in second language learning. System, 31(3), 313–330.
Gkonou, C. (2014). Sociolinguistic parameters of L2 speaking anxiety. In: Pawlak, M.-Bielak, J. and Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A. (Eds.) (2014). Classroom-oriented research: Achievements and challenges. Springer International Publishing Switzerland. 15-32.
Goh, C. C. M., & Burns, A. (2012). Teaching speaking: A holistic approach. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Gordon, E. G.–Sarason, S. B. (1955). The relationship between “test anxiety” and “other anxieties”. Journal of Personality, 23(3), 317-323. doi: 10.1111/1467-6494.ep8930749.
Gregersen, T. (2003). To err is human: A reminder to teachers of language-anxious students. Foreign Language Annals, 36(l), 25-32.
Gregersen, T. (2005). Nonverbal cues: Clues to the directions of foreign language anxiety. Foreign Language Annals, 38(3), 388-400. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2005.tb02225.x
Gregersen, T.–Horwitz, E. K. (2002). Language learning and perfectionism: anxious and non-anxious language learners’ reactions to their own oral performance. The Modern Language Journal, 86(4), 562-570.
Green, J. M.–Oxford, R. (1995). A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and gender. TESOL Quarterly, 29(2), 261-297. doi:10.2307/3587625
Horwitz, E. K. (1986). Preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of a Foreign Language Anxiety Scale. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 559-562.
Horwitz, E. K.–Horwitz, M. B. & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70, 125-132.
Horwitz, E. K. (2010). Research timeline: Foreign and second language anxiety. Language Teaching, 43(2), 154-167. doi:10.1017/S026144480999036X
Huang, X-H.–van Naerssen, M. (1987). Learning strategies for oral communication. Applied Linguistics 8(3), 287-307. doi: https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/8.3.287
Kawai, Y. (2008). Speaking and good language learners. In: Griffiths, C. (ed.) (2008). Lessons from good language learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 218-230.
Khalil, A. (2005). Assessment of language learning strategies used by Palestinian EFL learners. Foreign Language Annals, 38(1), 108-119. doi:10.1093/applin/8.3.287
Khamkhien, A. (2012). Proficiency, motivation, and classroom anxiety and their effect on language learning strategies used by Thai EFL learners. RJAS, 2(2), 85-98. doi:10.14456/rjas.2012.9
Lee, K. R.–Oxford, R. (2008). Understanding EFL learners’ strategy use and strategy awareness. The Asian EFL Journal, 10(1), 7-32. Downloaded 20 September 2019 from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/March_2008_EBook.pdf
Liu, M. (2018). Interactive effects of English-speaking anxiety and strategy use on oral English test performance of high- and low-proficient Chinese university EFL learners. Cogent Education, 5(1), 1562410. Downloaded 18 June 2020 from https://www.cogentoa.com/article/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1562410
Liu, H.–Chang, C. (2013). A study on language learning strategy use and its relation to academic self-concept: The case of EFL students in Taiwan. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 4(2), 260-268. doi:10.4304/jltr.4.2.260-268
Lucas, R. I.–Miraflores, E. & Go, D. (2011). English language learning anxiety among foreign language learners in the Philippines. Philippine ESL Journal, 7, 94-119.
Maros-Llinas, M.–Garan, M. J. (2009). Effects of language anxiety on three proficiency-level courses of Spanish as a foreign language. Foreign Language Annals, 42(1), 94-111.
MacIntyre, P. D. (1999). Language anxiety: A review of the research for language teachers. In: Young, D. J. (Ed.) (1999). Affect in foreign language and second language teaching: A practical guide to creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere. Boston: Mc Graw-Hill. 24-45.
MacIntyre, P. D.–Gardner, R. C. (1991). Investigating language class anxiety using the focused essay technique. The Modern Language Journal, 75(3), 296-304.
MacIntyre, P. D.–Gardner, R. C. (1994). The subtle effects of language anxiety on cognitive processing in the second language. Language Learning, 44, 283-305.
MacIntyre, P. D.–Noels, K. A. (1996). Using social-psychological variables to predict the use of language learning strategies. Foreign Language Annals, 29(3), 373- 386.
Murray, B. (2010). Students’ language learning strategy use and achievement in the Korean as a foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 43(4), 624-634. doi:10.1111/j.1944-9720.2010.01105.x
Oh, J. (1992). Learning strategies used by university EFL students in Korea. Language Teaching [Korea], 1, 3-53.
Ohata, K. (2005). Potential sources of anxiety for Japanese learners of English: Preliminary case interviews with five Japanese college students in the U.S. TESL-EJ, 9(3), 1-21.
Olivares-Cuhat, G. (2010). Relative importance of learning variables on L2 performance. Linguistik online, 43(3/10), 99-116. Downloaded 11 September 2019 from http://www.linguistik-online.de/43_10/olivarescuhat.pdf
O’Malley, J. M.–Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’Malley, J. M.–Chamot, A. U.–Stewner-Manzanares, G.–Russo, R. P. & Kupper, L. (1985). Learning strategy applications with students of English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly, 19(3), 557-584. doi:10.2307/3586278
Oxford, R. L. (1989). Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. Downloaded 30 July 2019 from http://www.finchpark.com/arts/sille.doc
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House.
Oxford, R. L. (2017). Teaching and researching language learning strategies: Self-regulation in context. New York and London: Routledge.
Palacios, L. M. (1998). Foreign language anxiety and classroom environment: A study of Spanish university students. PhD dissertation, Austin, The University of Texas.
Pawlak, M. (2011). Anxiety as a factor influencing the use of language learning strategies. In: Pawlak, M. (Ed.) (2011). Extending the boundaries of research of second language learning and teaching. Berlin-Heideleberg: Springer Verlag. 149-165.
Pawlak, M. (2018a). Grammar learning strategy inventory (GLSI): Another look. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 8(2), 351-379. doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.2.8
Pawlak, M. (2018b). Investigating the use of speaking strategies in the performance of two communicative tasks: The importance of communicative goal. Studies in the Second Language Learning and Teaching 8(2), 269-291. See doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2018.8.2.5
Pietrzykowska, A. (2014). The relationship between learning strategies and speaking performance. In: Pawlak, M.-Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A. & Bielak, J. (Eds.) (2014). Classroom-oriented research: Achievements and challenges. Heidelberg: Springer. 55-68.
Pichette, F. (2009). Second language anxiety and distance language learning. Foreign Language Annals, 42(1), 77-93.
Rodriguez, M.–Abreu, O. 2003. The stability of general foreign language classroom anxiety across English and French. The Modern Language Journal, 87(3), 365-374.
Rubin, J. (1975). What the “good language learner” can teach us? TESOL Quarterly, 9(1), 41-51.
Samimy, K. K. (1994). Teaching Japanese: Considerations of learners’ affective variables. Theory into Practice, 33(1), 29-33. Downloaded 3 October 2019 from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1476413?origin=JSTOR-pdf.
Shabani, M. B. (2015). On the relationship between foreign language anxiety and language learning strategies among Iranian EFL learners. International Journal of Educational Investigations, 2(2), 9-23.
Sioson, I. C. (2011). Language learning strategies, beliefs, and anxiety in academic speaking task. Philippine ESL Journal, 7, 3-27.
Sparks, R. L.–Ganschow, L. (2007). Is the foreign language classroom anxiety scale measuring anxiety or language skills? Foreign Language Annals, 40(2), 260-287. doi: 10.1111/j.1944-9720.2007.tb03201.x
Stern, H. H. (1975). What can we learn from the good language learner? Canadian Modern Language Review, 31(4), 304-18.
Tallon, M. (2011). Heritage speakers of Spanish and foreign language anxiety: A pilot study. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education, 15(1), 70-87. Downloaded 10 February 2013 from http://studentorgs.utexas.edu/flesa/TPFLE_New/Index.htm.
Toth, Z. (2008). A foreign language anxiety scale for Hungarian learners of English. WoPaLP, 2, 55-78. Downloaded 23 December 2011 from http://langped.elte.hu/WoPaLParticles/W2TothZs.pdf.
Tudor, I. (1996). Learner-centredness as Language Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Watson, D.–Friend, R. (1969). Measurement in social-evaluative anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 33(4), 448-457.
Wu, Kun-huei. (2010). The relationship between language learners’ anxiety and learning strategy in the CLT classroom. International Education Studies. 3(1), 174-191.
Yamashiro, A. D.–McLaughlin, J. (2001). Relationships among attitudes, motivation, anxiety, and English language proficiency in Japanese college students. In: Robinson, P.-Sawyer, M. & Ross, S. (eds.) (2001). Second language acquisition research in Japan: JALT Applied Materials Series, Vol. 4. Tokyo, Japan: Japan Association of Language Teachers Press. 19-33.
Yan, J. X.–Horwitz, E. K. (2008). Learner’s perceptions of how anxiety interacts with personal and instructional factors to influence their achievement in English: A qualitative analysis of EFL learners in China. Language Learning, 58(1), 151-181. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00437.x
Yang, M. (2010). Language learning strategies of English as a foreign language university students in Korea. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The College of Graduate and Professional Studies Department of Curriculum, Instruction, and Media Technology, Indiana State University. Downloaded 11 September 2019 from http://scholars.indstate.edu/handle/10484/968?mode=full
Yang, N. D. (1999). The relationship between EFL learners' beliefs and learning strategy use. System, 27(4), 515-535. doi:10.1016/S0346-251X(99)00048-2
Young, D. J. (1990). An investigation of students’ perspectives on anxiety and speaking. Foreign Language Annals, 23(6), 539-553. doi: 10.1111/j.1944-9720.1990.tb00424.x
Young, D. J. (1991). Creating a low anxiety classroom environment: What does language anxiety research suggest? The Modern Language Journal, 75, 426-439.
Young, D. J. (1999). Affect in foreign language and second language learning: A practical guide to creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Zhang, X.–Liu, Y. (2005). Language learning strategies and language achievement: Across-cultural study. CELEA Journal, 28(3), 82-89. Downloaded 28 September 2019 from http://www.celea.org.cn/teic/61/61-82.pdf