ETHICAL QUESTIONS OF ENHANCERS APPLICATION IN CHILDREN WITH TYPICAL DEVELOPMENT
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Abstract
Given that psychology is a humanistic science and a helping profession, we can say that ethical questions are the basis of an adequatelly designed psychological research. If we add in the interdisciplinarity of psychology, as well as the steady progress of scientific accomplishments that are used in psychology, we can establish the necessity of continuous checks of the nature of research by the ethics committees. Research with particular populations, such as with kids who are using relatively problematic substances – enhancer medicaments, for example - in the prevention or treatment of certain maladaptive phenomena in the domain of psychological functioning, require a stricter control by the ethics committees. Expansion of production of medicaments used in the treatment of children who are beyond the pathological functioning makes this area even more problematic. This paper describes the conceptual framework of the problems of applying enhancer medicaments in the population of children with typical development, describes the arguments for and against the use of enhancers in this particular population, and, from the perspective of psychology, discusses the consequences of excesive medicament use in situations where they are not necessary. In the last part of the paper we analyze the possibilities and obligations of the psychologist as an expert in working with children who consume medicaments in order to improve their own cognitive and emotional performances that are already functioning at an optimal level.
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Milovanović, I. (2017). ETHICAL QUESTIONS OF ENHANCERS APPLICATION IN CHILDREN WITH TYPICAL DEVELOPMENT. ANNUAL REVIEW OF THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, 41(2), 289–304. Retrieved from https://godisnjak.ff.uns.ac.rs/index.php/gff/article/view/1885
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Психологија
References
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Elliott, R., Sahakian, B. J., Matthews, K., Bannerjea, A., Rimmer, J., & Robbins, T. W. (1997). Effects of methylphenidate on spatial working memory and planning in healthy young adults. Psychopharmacology, 131(2), 196-206. Preuzeto sa: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s002130050284
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Fava, M., Rush, J., Thase, M., Clayton, A., Stahl, S., Pradko, J, & Johnston, A. (2005). 15 years of clinical experience with Bupropion HCl: From Bupropion to Bupropion SR to Bupropion XL. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 7(3), 106-113. DOI: 10.4088/PCC.v07n0305
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Graham, A., Powell, M., Taylor, N., Anderson, D., & Fitzgerald, R. (2013). Ethical research involving children. Florence: UNICEF Office of Research–Innocenti. Preuzeto sa: https://aifs.gov.au/sites/default/files/fm96-ag.pdf
Harcourt, D., & Conroy, H. (2005). Informed assent: Ethics and processes when researching with young children. Early Child Development and Care, 175(6), 567-577. DOI: 10.1080/03004430500131353
Helland, I. B., Smith, L., Saarem, K., Saugstad, O. D., & Drevon, C. A. (2003). Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain N-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children’s IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics, 111(1), 39–44. DOI: 10.1542/peds.111.1.e39
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Kass, L. (2003). Ageless bodies, happy souls: Biotechnology and the pursuit of perfection. The New Atlantis, 1, 9–28. Preuzeto sa: http://www.thenewatlantis.com/doclib/tna01-kass.pdf
Knutson, B., Wolkowitz, O., Cole, S., Chan, T., Moore, E., Johnson, R..., & Reus, V. (1998). Selective alteration of personality and social behavior by serotonergic intervention. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 373–379. Preuzeto sa: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brian_Knutson/publication/51299461_Selective_Alteration_of_Personality_and_Social_Behavior_by_Serotonergic_Intervention/links/554858330cf2e2031b386d6b.pdf
Lieberman, H. R. (2003). Nutrition, brain function and cognitive performance. Appetite, 40(3), 245–254. DOI:10.1016/S0195-6663(03)00010-2
Lin, P. (2007). Nanotechnology bound: Evaluating the case for more regulation. NanoEthics: Ethics for Technologies that Converge on the Nanoscale, 2, 105-122. Preuzeto sa: http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=phil_fac
Maxwell, B., & Racine, E. (2012). The Ethics of Neuroeducation: Research, Practice and Policy. Neuroethics, 5(2), 101. DOI: 10.1007/s12152-012-9156-6
Mehta, M., Owen, A., Sahakian, B., Mavaddat, N., Pickard, J., & Robbins, T. (2000). Methylphenidate enhances working memory by modulating discrete frontal and parietal lobe regions in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 65-66. Preuzeto sa: http://www.adders.org/camb%20research.pdf
Morrow, V., & Richards, M. (1996). The ethics of social research with children: An overview. Children & society, 10(2), 90-105. Preuzeto sa: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virginia_Morrow/publication/227727186_The_Ethics_of_Social_Research_with_Children_An_Overview1/links/54ddd4d90cf23bf20438ab29.pdf
Myrick, H., Malcolm, R., Taylor, B., & LaRowe, S. (2004). Modafinil: Preclinical, clinical, and postmarketing surveillance - A review of abuse liability issues. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 16(2), 101–109. DOI: 10.1080/10401230490453743
Nature Editorial. (2006). Neuroethics needed. Nature, 441, 907. DOI: 10.1038/441907a
Narvaez, D. (2012). Moral neuroeducation from early life through the lifespan. Neuroethics, 5(2), 145-157. DOI: 10.1007/s12152-011-9117-5
O' Connor, W. T. (2010). What can neuroscience teach us about teaching? International Conference on Engaging Pedagogy, National University of Ireland Maynooth. Preuzeto sa: https://ulir.ul.ie/bitstream/handle/10344/4456/OConnor_2010_pedagogy.pdf?sequence=2
Pontius A. (1993). Neuroethics vs neurophysiologically and neuropsychologically uninformed influences in child-rearing and education. Psychological Reports, 72, 451–458. Preuzeto sa: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anneliese_Pontius/publication/14711543_Neuroethics_vs_neurophysiologically_and_neuropsychologically_uninformed_influences_in_child-rearing_education_emerging_hunter-gatherers_and_artificial_intelligence_models_of_the_brain/links/02bfe50cf29d1c2c34000000.pdf
Powell, M. A., Fitzgerald, R. M., Taylor, N., & Graham, A. (2012). International literature review: ethical issues in Undertaking research with children and young people. The Childwatch International Research Network, Southern Cross University, Centre for Children and Young People, Lismore NSW and University of Otago, Centre for Research on Children and Families, Dunedin, NZ. Preuzeto sa: http://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=ccyp_pubs
Ressler, K. J., Rothbaum, B. O., Tannenbaum, L., Anderson, P., Graap, K., Zimand, E., ... , & Davis, M. (2004). Cognitive enhancers as adjuncts to psychotherapy—Use of D-cycloserine in phobic individuals to facilitate extinction of fear. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(11), 1136–1144. DOI:10.1001/archpsyc.61.11.1136
Roskies, A. (2002). Neuroethics for the new millennium. Neuron, 35, 21–23. DOI:10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00763-8
Sahakian, B., & Morein-Zamir, S. (2011). Neuroethical issues in cognitive enhancement. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(2), 197–204. DOI: 10.1177/0269881109106926
Savulescu, J. (2007). Genetic interventions and the ethics of enhancement of human being. In Steinbock (Ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Bioethics, (pp. 516 – 539). Oxford University Press. Preuzeto sa: https://books.google.rs/books?hl=sr&lr=&id=zUcb57fVn_gC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=+The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Bioethics&ots=qZirzvYNSQ&sig=oOXIm5gCRZLRjb30TGS2GaEfZ4w&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=The%20Oxford%20Handbook%20of%20Bioethics&f=false
Solomon, P., Adams, F., Silver, A., Zimmer, J., & DeVeaux, R. (2002). Ginkgo for memory enhancement: A randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Americal Medical Association, 288(7), 835-840. DOI:10.1001/jama.288.7.835
Stahl, S. M. (2008). Stahl’s Essential Psychopharmacology, 3rd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646154
Synofzik, M., Schlaepfer, T., & Hopkins, J. (2012). How happy is too happy? Euphoria, neuroethics, and deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens. Neuroscience, 3(1), 30–36. DOI: 10.1080/21507740.2011.635633
Ungar, D., Joffe, S., & Kodish, E. (2006). Children are not small adults: documentation of assent for research involving children. The Journal of pediatrics, 149(1), S31-S33. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.04.048
Vaynman, S., & Gomez-Pinilla, F. (2005). License to run: Exercise impacts functional plasticity in the intact and injured central nervous system by using neurotrophins. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 19(4), 283–295. DOI: 10.1177/1545968305280753
Allhoff, F., Lin, P., Moor, J., & Wecker J. (2009). Ethics of Human Enhancement: 25 Questions & Answers. US National Science Foundation. Preuzeto sa: http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=phil_fac
Bostrom, N., & Roache, R. (2008). Ethical issues in human enhancement. In Ryberg Petersen, & Wolf (Eds.) New Waves in Applied Ethics, (pp. 120-152). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Preuzeto sa: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rebecca_Roache/publication/256812841_Ethical_issues_in_human_enhancement/links/0deec523c954e40574000000.pdf
Chau, V. (2007). Popping pills to study: Neuroethics in education. Stanford Journal of Neuroscience, 1(1), 18-20. Preuzeto sa: http://web.stanford.edu/group/co-sign/Chau.pdf
Craig, I., & Plomin, R. (2006). Quantitative trait loci for IQ and other complex traits: Single-nucleotide polymorphism genotyping using pooled DNA and microarrays. Genes Brain and Behavior, 5, 32– 37. DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-183X.2006.00192.x
Elliott, R., Sahakian, B. J., Matthews, K., Bannerjea, A., Rimmer, J., & Robbins, T. W. (1997). Effects of methylphenidate on spatial working memory and planning in healthy young adults. Psychopharmacology, 131(2), 196-206. Preuzeto sa: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s002130050284
Farah, M. J. (2005). Neuroethics: the practical and the philosophical. Trends in Cognitive Science, 9, 34–40. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.001
Farah, M. J., Illes, J., Cook-Deegan, R., Gardner, H., Kandel, E., King, P., ... , & Wolpe, P. (2004). Neurocognitive enhancement: What can we do and what should we do? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 5(5), 421–425. DOI:10.1038/nrn1390
Farah, M.J. (2004). Emerging ethical issues in neuroscience. Nature Neuroscience, 5(11), 1123-1130. DOI:10.1038/nn1102-1123
Fava, M., Rush, J., Thase, M., Clayton, A., Stahl, S., Pradko, J, & Johnston, A. (2005). 15 years of clinical experience with Bupropion HCl: From Bupropion to Bupropion SR to Bupropion XL. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 7(3), 106-113. DOI: 10.4088/PCC.v07n0305
Flett, G.L., Vrendenburg, K. & Krames, L. (1997). The continuity of depression in clinical and nonclinical samples. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 395-416. Preuzeto sa: http://psycnet.apa.org.proxy.kobson.nb.rs:2048/journals/bul/121/3/395.pdf&productCode=pa
Flower, R. (2004). Lifestyle drugs: pharmacology and the social agenda. Trends in Pharmacological Science, 25, 182–185. DOI:10.1016/j.tips.2004.02.006
Fukujama, F. (2003). Naša posthumana budućnost: posledice biotehnološke revolucije. Podgorica: CID.
Fuller, J. K., & Glendening, J. G. (1985). The neuroeducator: professional of the future. Theory into Practice, 24(2), 135-137. Preuzeto sa: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1476429
Graham, A., Powell, M., Taylor, N., Anderson, D., & Fitzgerald, R. (2013). Ethical research involving children. Florence: UNICEF Office of Research–Innocenti. Preuzeto sa: https://aifs.gov.au/sites/default/files/fm96-ag.pdf
Harcourt, D., & Conroy, H. (2005). Informed assent: Ethics and processes when researching with young children. Early Child Development and Care, 175(6), 567-577. DOI: 10.1080/03004430500131353
Helland, I. B., Smith, L., Saarem, K., Saugstad, O. D., & Drevon, C. A. (2003). Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain N-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children’s IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics, 111(1), 39–44. DOI: 10.1542/peds.111.1.e39
Juengst, E. (1997). Can enhancement be distinguished from prevention in genetic medicine? Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 22, 125-142. Preuzeto sa: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.454.5125&rep=rep1&type=pdf
Kass, L. (2003). Ageless bodies, happy souls: Biotechnology and the pursuit of perfection. The New Atlantis, 1, 9–28. Preuzeto sa: http://www.thenewatlantis.com/doclib/tna01-kass.pdf
Knutson, B., Wolkowitz, O., Cole, S., Chan, T., Moore, E., Johnson, R..., & Reus, V. (1998). Selective alteration of personality and social behavior by serotonergic intervention. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 373–379. Preuzeto sa: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Brian_Knutson/publication/51299461_Selective_Alteration_of_Personality_and_Social_Behavior_by_Serotonergic_Intervention/links/554858330cf2e2031b386d6b.pdf
Lieberman, H. R. (2003). Nutrition, brain function and cognitive performance. Appetite, 40(3), 245–254. DOI:10.1016/S0195-6663(03)00010-2
Lin, P. (2007). Nanotechnology bound: Evaluating the case for more regulation. NanoEthics: Ethics for Technologies that Converge on the Nanoscale, 2, 105-122. Preuzeto sa: http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=phil_fac
Maxwell, B., & Racine, E. (2012). The Ethics of Neuroeducation: Research, Practice and Policy. Neuroethics, 5(2), 101. DOI: 10.1007/s12152-012-9156-6
Mehta, M., Owen, A., Sahakian, B., Mavaddat, N., Pickard, J., & Robbins, T. (2000). Methylphenidate enhances working memory by modulating discrete frontal and parietal lobe regions in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 65-66. Preuzeto sa: http://www.adders.org/camb%20research.pdf
Morrow, V., & Richards, M. (1996). The ethics of social research with children: An overview. Children & society, 10(2), 90-105. Preuzeto sa: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Virginia_Morrow/publication/227727186_The_Ethics_of_Social_Research_with_Children_An_Overview1/links/54ddd4d90cf23bf20438ab29.pdf
Myrick, H., Malcolm, R., Taylor, B., & LaRowe, S. (2004). Modafinil: Preclinical, clinical, and postmarketing surveillance - A review of abuse liability issues. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 16(2), 101–109. DOI: 10.1080/10401230490453743
Nature Editorial. (2006). Neuroethics needed. Nature, 441, 907. DOI: 10.1038/441907a
Narvaez, D. (2012). Moral neuroeducation from early life through the lifespan. Neuroethics, 5(2), 145-157. DOI: 10.1007/s12152-011-9117-5
O' Connor, W. T. (2010). What can neuroscience teach us about teaching? International Conference on Engaging Pedagogy, National University of Ireland Maynooth. Preuzeto sa: https://ulir.ul.ie/bitstream/handle/10344/4456/OConnor_2010_pedagogy.pdf?sequence=2
Pontius A. (1993). Neuroethics vs neurophysiologically and neuropsychologically uninformed influences in child-rearing and education. Psychological Reports, 72, 451–458. Preuzeto sa: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Anneliese_Pontius/publication/14711543_Neuroethics_vs_neurophysiologically_and_neuropsychologically_uninformed_influences_in_child-rearing_education_emerging_hunter-gatherers_and_artificial_intelligence_models_of_the_brain/links/02bfe50cf29d1c2c34000000.pdf
Powell, M. A., Fitzgerald, R. M., Taylor, N., & Graham, A. (2012). International literature review: ethical issues in Undertaking research with children and young people. The Childwatch International Research Network, Southern Cross University, Centre for Children and Young People, Lismore NSW and University of Otago, Centre for Research on Children and Families, Dunedin, NZ. Preuzeto sa: http://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1041&context=ccyp_pubs
Ressler, K. J., Rothbaum, B. O., Tannenbaum, L., Anderson, P., Graap, K., Zimand, E., ... , & Davis, M. (2004). Cognitive enhancers as adjuncts to psychotherapy—Use of D-cycloserine in phobic individuals to facilitate extinction of fear. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(11), 1136–1144. DOI:10.1001/archpsyc.61.11.1136
Roskies, A. (2002). Neuroethics for the new millennium. Neuron, 35, 21–23. DOI:10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00763-8
Sahakian, B., & Morein-Zamir, S. (2011). Neuroethical issues in cognitive enhancement. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 25(2), 197–204. DOI: 10.1177/0269881109106926
Savulescu, J. (2007). Genetic interventions and the ethics of enhancement of human being. In Steinbock (Ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Bioethics, (pp. 516 – 539). Oxford University Press. Preuzeto sa: https://books.google.rs/books?hl=sr&lr=&id=zUcb57fVn_gC&oi=fnd&pg=PR9&dq=+The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Bioethics&ots=qZirzvYNSQ&sig=oOXIm5gCRZLRjb30TGS2GaEfZ4w&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=The%20Oxford%20Handbook%20of%20Bioethics&f=false
Solomon, P., Adams, F., Silver, A., Zimmer, J., & DeVeaux, R. (2002). Ginkgo for memory enhancement: A randomized controlled trial. The Journal of Americal Medical Association, 288(7), 835-840. DOI:10.1001/jama.288.7.835
Stahl, S. M. (2008). Stahl’s Essential Psychopharmacology, 3rd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521646154
Synofzik, M., Schlaepfer, T., & Hopkins, J. (2012). How happy is too happy? Euphoria, neuroethics, and deep brain stimulation of the nucleus accumbens. Neuroscience, 3(1), 30–36. DOI: 10.1080/21507740.2011.635633
Ungar, D., Joffe, S., & Kodish, E. (2006). Children are not small adults: documentation of assent for research involving children. The Journal of pediatrics, 149(1), S31-S33. DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2006.04.048
Vaynman, S., & Gomez-Pinilla, F. (2005). License to run: Exercise impacts functional plasticity in the intact and injured central nervous system by using neurotrophins. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair, 19(4), 283–295. DOI: 10.1177/1545968305280753